Three Areas of Philosophy
Theory of Reality : Ontology & Metaphysics--from the Greek ontos (being, reality) and logos (logic, understanding of) and meta (beyond) and physis (nature).
Theory of Knowledge: Epistemology--from episteme and logos.
Theory of Value: Axiology--from the Greek axios (worth, value) and logos.
Theory of Reality
What is the nature of reality? Is it matter, mind, or spirit? A combination of these or none of them?
Are the basic things substances--self-contained, unchanging, and eternal--or are they changing processes?
Substance versus Process Philosophy.
Substance philosophy dominates in both Asia and Europe
Examples of the Process Philosophy: Euro-America: Heraclitus, Hegel, Bergson, Whitehead, and Hartshorne. Asia: Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism. See Center for Process Studies, Claremont School of Theology, Claremont, California.
The Mind-Body Problem
Materialism: there is only matter and the mind is nothing but brain cells firing.
Dualism: there is mental substance in addition to material substance.
Idealism/Mentalism/Spiritualism: the fundamental nature of reality is mind or spirit. Matter is derivative or an illusion.
Neutral Monism (Gk. monas=one): fundamental nature of reality is neither mind nor matter--perhaps energy?
Corresponding scientific study in atomic physics, physiology, and cognitive science. The Tao of Physics and Dancing Wu Li Masters
Mind-Body Solutions in Indian Philosophy
l Lokayata Materialism: material atoms just as in Greek philosophy. Jaina Dualism: soul (jiva) vs. matter/body (ajiva).
l Sankhya-Yoga Dualism: soul (purusha) vs. matter/body (prakriti).
l Jaina Dualism: soul (jiva) vs. matter/body (ajiva).
l Hindu Theism: Personal God (Vishnu, Shiva, Goddess) creates world of souls and matter. See Krishna in the Bhagavad-gita.
l Vedantist Spiritualism: soul/spirit (atman) is the nature of reality. All souls same substance as Brahman--the Godhead, universal spirit.
l Absolute Monism (Advaita Vedanta): Brahman-Atman is the only reality; plurarlity, change, motion, etc. are all illusion.
Other Metaphysical Issues
What is the relationship between reason, the will, the emotions, and the imagination?
Are humans intrinsically good, evil, combination of the two, or neither?
Is the will free or is determined by antecedent causes and conditions (determinism)?
Is the soul immortal? Is there an afterlife or is this life all there is?
India Answers to these Issues
l As in much Western philosophy there is a generally strong tension among reason, the passions, and the appetites. Strong ascetic (body-denying and world-denying) tradition.
• The Buddha was the single most important exception this tension.
l Indian philosophy generally holds to the basic goodness of human nature.
l Determinism: There is very little evidence of a free-will theory comparable to Western philosophy.
l The soul (purusha, atman) is immortal and it will have an afterlife with God or in total union with Brahman.
Organic or Atomistic?
l Should we view both society and reality like a living body or is it more accurate to say that we are more like "social" atoms bouncing around in the empty space of society?
• Hierarchical vs. egalitarian views of society.
• Social self vs. rational autonomy.
l Indian Philosophy generally sides with organic view but spiritual “atomism” in Jainism and Sankhya-Yoga.
Realism vs. Anti-Realism
l NAIVE REALISM: The external world is totally independent of our knowledge and perception of it.
l MODERATE REALISM: The external world is partially independent of our perception of it (matter and its primary qualities) and partially dependent (secondary qualities such as sound, color, taste, touch, smell). John Locke and Classical Science. Contemporary physics?
l Forms Indian Realism in Lokayata materialism, Jainism, Sankhya-Yoga, and the Buddha.
Anti-Realism in Asia and Europe
ANTI-REALISM: The external world is not separate from us.
SUBJECTIVE IDEALISM: The individual subject constructs the external world. George Berkeley and the Buddhist Dinaga.
OBJECTIVE IDEALISM: A universal subject (God , Brahman, or the Buddha Mind) is the world. Hegel and Vedanta, Yogacara Idealists Buddhists).
Theory of Knowledge
l How and what can we know?
l Rationalism: True knowledge already exists in the human soul as "innate" knowledge. Plato takes the most radical position on this issue, but Aristotle stands as a compromise between rationalism and empiricism.
l Empiricism: Knowledge comes primarily from experience and the five senses. Epicurus, John Locke, and David Hume. Locke believed that our minds are like "blank tablets," and experience "writes" on our minds like we write on a blackboard. For them there is no innate knowledge.
Theory of Knowledge in Indian Philosophy
l Empiricism in Lokayata materialism and the Buddha.
l Mixture of empiricism and rationalism in most other schools.
l Rationalism in Shankara’s Advaita Vedanta.
Theory of Value
l Ethics: value for the individual--"What ought I do as an individual?"
l Social and Political Philosophy: value for society--"What ought we do together?"
l Philosophy of Art and Aesthetics: the value in the fine arts and natural beauty.
Theory of Value in India
l Except for Lokayata materialist the Indians join most other ancient philosophers in affirming the unity of reality, goodness, and beauty.
l Theistic and Goddess traditions emphasize the good of being in a body and in society.
l In the ascetic traditions (Jainism and Sankhya-Yoga) the yogi is “beyond good and evil”--beyond society and nature.