Aldo Leopold, "The Land Ethic" from Sand County Almanac - Oxford University Press, 1987 edition. Originally published in 1949. (Leopold died in 1948)

Reading and Discussion Questions

1. In the intro and "The Ethical Sequence" Leopold argues that who counts ethically has been extended. What is his argument? What stages does he see? How does he distinguish between an ecological ethic and a philosophical ethic? (Intro pp. 201-202 and "The Ethical Sequence," 202-203)

2. What role does "The Community Concept" section play in his developing argument (pp. 203-207)? Leopold writes, " The land ethic simply enlarges the boundaries of the community to include soils, waters, plants, and animals, or collectively: the land." (204) And, "In short, a land ethic changes the role of Homo sapiens from a conqueror of the land-community to plain member and citizen of it. It implies respect for his fellow-members, and also respect for the community as such." (204) How does he seek to convince the reader of this new concept of community? Did you find his points persuasive? Why or why not?

3. In the " Ecological Conscience" section (207-10) how does he critique conservation education and conservation practices in general? Keep in mind the book was originally published in 1949. Why isn’t enlightened self-interest enough in his view? What roles do an "ecological conscience" and a sense of individual responsibility play?

4. In the section on "Substitutes for a Land Ethic" (210-214), what are "some of the stones that serve in lieu of a land ethic" (210)? Why does he think "an ethical obligation on the part of the private owner" is necessary (214)?

5. Leopold begins the section entitled "The Land Pyramid" (214- 220) with the statement, "An ethic to supplement and guide the economic relation to land presupposes the existence of some mental image of land as a biotic mechanism. We can be ethical only in relation to something we can see, feel, understand, love, or otherwise have faith in." (214) What is the biotic pyramid he has in mind? How does energy flow through it? Why is the image of a pyramid apt? What are the three basic ideas that the image of land as an energy circuit conveys according to Leopold (see especially p. 218)? How and why do man-made changes vary in the degree of impact in various parts of the world according to Leopold? What role does the notion of the land pyramid play in his overall argument in "The Land Ethic"? How does he tie understanding and love to the pyramid?

6. In the section "Land Health and the A-B Cleavage" (221-23 ) Leopold introduces the concept of land health. What is it and why is it important? He also argues that an "A-B cleavage" exists. What is the A-B cleavage? How do we see it emerge in various contexts? What are the basic paradoxes he sees in all of these (223)?

7. Leopold begins the section entitled "The Outlook" (223- ) with the statement, "It is inconceivable to me that an ethical relation to land can exist without love, respect, and admiration for land, and a high regard for its value. By value, I of course mean something far broader than mere economic value; I mean value in the philosophical sense." (223) What is this "value in the philosophical sense" given what he says throughout the essay? What are some of the obstacles to a land ethic that he sees? Why are love, ethics, and aesthetics all involved?

Perhaps the most famous phrase from the essay occurs in this section:

"A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise." (224-25)

This has sometimes been considered an ethical principle to be used much as the principle of utility or Kant’s categorical imperative. How does this principle fit in with his overall argument in "The Land Ethic"? What do you see as the strengths and weaknesses of this principle both in general and as a guide to engineers? Leopold goes on to say that "The mechanism of operation is the same for any ethic: social approbation for right actions; social disapproval for wrong actions." (225) Is he right about this? Leopold also says that what is crucial is a change in attitudes: "We are remodeling the Alhambra with a steam-shovel, and we are proud of our yardage. We shall hardly relinquish the shovel, which after all has many good points, but we are in need of gentler and more objective criteria for its successful use." (226) Unpack these the last two sentences of the essay. Are attitudes what is crucial?

8. What are the roles of emotion and reason in Leopold’s land ethic?

9. What is Leopold’s anthropology, i.e., what is his view of humans and human nature?

10. Leopold seems to grant inherent or intrinsic value to elements of the "land", but the role of humans in granting or recognizing this value is not entirely clear. Do you think he advocates intrinsic rather than instrumental value for all elements of nature? On a continuum between"anthropocentric" (human-centered) and "biocentric" (all life-centered) where would you place Leopold based on "The Land Ethic"?