THOMAS HOBBES 1588-1679

Readings:   T. Hobbes, "Leviathan" in Solomon, Martin, and Vaught, eds. Morality and the Good Life . 5th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009) 188-209 or Solomon and Martin, 4th ed., 179-202; S. Stumpf, Socrates to Sartre. 6th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999) 210-19.

I. The Prisoners' Dilemma

Image viewable at http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/224893/85154/Table-4-The-prisoners-dilemma-is-a-well-known-problem

FOR FUN:  To play the Prisoners' Dilemma online, go to http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/playground/pd.html or to a more complex version at http://www.gametheory.net/Mike/applets/PDilemma/    The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy has an extensive discussion of the Prisoners' Dilemma at http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/prisoner-dilemma/

 

 

 

II. Background

A. Life

 

 

B. His Age and the Rejection of Theory of Transcendent Ideas or Forms

 

 

 

III. Mechanics, Materialism & Psychology: Motion & Emotion

A. Universe Consists of Bodies in Motion

 

 

B. Materialism: Only Knowable Reality is Physical, Corporeal

 

 

C. Human Motions: Vital and Voluntary

1. Vital motions

 

2. Animal motion or voluntary motions

 

Endeavor

 

 

IV. Hobbes Theory of the Good

"But whatsoever is the object of any man's appetite or desire, that is it which he for his part calleth good." (Hobbes in  Solomon and Martin, 4th ed., 182)

 

 

 

VI. The Natural Condition of Man

(Solitary - Social Atomism)

A. EQUALITY - equal in ability to kill

 

B. EACH PERSON ENEMY OF OTHERS

 

C. RIGHT OF SELF-DEFENSE

 

D. WAR. Constant fear of death and struggle to survive. "continual fear, and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." (Hobbes in Solomon, Martin, and Vaught, 193)

 

E. POSSIBLE OBJECTION: NO SUCH STATE OF NATURE EVER EXISTED.

1. ". . . it was never generally  so, over all the world:  but there are many places, where they live so now."  (Hobbes in Solomon and Martin, 186;  Solomon, Martin, and Vaught, 194 ) - ex. savages in America.

2. What if there were "no common power to fear" as in civil war.(Hobbes in Solomon and Martin, 186; Solomon, Martin, and Vaught, 194  )

3. Sovereigns are always in a state of war.

 

F. "To this war of every man, against every man, this is also consequent; that nothing can be unjust." (Hobbes in  Solomon and Martin, p.186; in Solomon, Martin, and Vaught, 194; italics mine.)

 

G. Means of Escape from Natural Condition

 

VI. FIRST AND SECOND LAWS OF NATURE AND SOCIAL CONTRACT

A. Right of Nature - ". . . is the liberty each man hath to use his own power, as he will himself, for the preservation of his own nature; that is to say of his own life; and consequently, of doing any thing, which in his own judgment, and reason he shall conceive to be the aptest means thereunto" (Leviathan in Solomon,Martin, Vaught 195). The sum of the right of nature is "by all means we can to defend ourselves. (Leviathan in Solomon,Martin, Vaught 196)." In a state of nature where every man is at war with every other man, the best defense is a good offense.

 

B. Law of Nature (lex naturalis)

 

C. Natural Condition of War and Rights and Laws of Nature

1. "Every man has a right to every thing, even to one another’s body" (Hobbes in Solomon and Greene, 186)

As long as this natural right lasts no one can be secure

2. ". . . a general rule of reason that every man, ought to endeavour [seek] peace, as far as he has hope of obtaining it; and when he cannot obtain it, that he may seek, and use, all helps, and advantages of war." (Hobbes in Solomon and Greene, 186)

3. This general rule contains 2 parts:

a. FIRST FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF NATURE:

"To seek peace, and follow it" (Hobbes, Leviathan in eds. Solomon, Martin, Vaught 196).

b. SUM OF RIGHT OF NATURE

"by all means we can to defend ourselves." (Hobbes, Leviathan in eds. Solomon, Martin, Vaught 196).)

 

4. SECOND FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF NATURE:

"that a man be willing, when others are so too, as far-forth, as for peace, and defense of himself he shall think it necessary, to lay down this right to all things; and be contented with so much liberty against other men, as he would allow other men against himself" (Hobbes, Leviathan in Solomon, Martin, Vaught, eds. 196).

 

 

E. How Rights are Laid Aside - SOCIAL CONTRACT

Voluntary Mutual Transfer of Right of Nature(except defense when attacked) by individuals following the first two laws of nature to a central power, the Leviathan.

 

 

VII. LEVIATHAN - Commonwealth

A. Definition of Commonwealth - Great Leviathan - the "mortal God" - multitude united in one person by social contract for "peace and common defence." (Solomon, Martin, and Vaught, 200)

"one person [or an assembly], of whose acts a great multitude by mutual covenants with one another, have made themselves everyone the author, to the end that he may use the strength and means of them all, as he shall think expedient for their peace and common defence" (Leviathan in Solomon,Martin, Vaught 200). 

B. Need large group to confer power

C.  Need the Leviathan to rule with terror: 

"For the laws of nature, as justice, equity, modesty, mercy, and, in sum, doing to others as we would be done to, of themselves, without the terror of some power, to cause them to be observed, are contrary to our natural passions, that carry us to partiality, pride revenge, and the like. And covenants, without the sword, are but words . . . ." (Hobbes in Solomon, Martin, and Vaught, 199) 

Similarly, "For by this authority, given him [the Leviathan] by every particular men in the commonwealth, he hath the use of so much power and strength conferred on him, that by terror thereof, he is enabled to perform the wills of them all, to peace at home, and mutual aid against their enemies abroad."  (Hobbes in Solomon, Martin, and Vaught, 200).

 

C. CONSENT OF GOVERNED-VS-DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS

 

D. Aristotle's view of relation of State and Individual vs. Hobbes View.

1. Similarities - state is a means to an end - enabling each of us to attain our ends. State has authority over individual.

 

2. Difference - starting points and points of emphasis.

 

 

VIII. Critique of Hobbes

A. Strengths and Weaknessess

1. Materialism and mechanical psychology

 

2. View of Natural Condition of Man

 

3. Derivation of First and Second Laws of Nature by Virtue of Reason.

 

4. Even if axioms are true and shown to people - will people follow them?

 

5. Unit of analysis - social atomism

 

6. Hobbes’ psychology - egoism

 

B. Egoism

1. Important definitions



a. Psychological egoism





b. Ethical egoism





c. Altruism





2. Criticisms of Psychological Egoism



a. Empirical evidence of modern psychologists



b. Altruistic actions exist.



c. An à priori thesis about an empirical question.





3. Criticisms of Ethical Egoism.



a. Universalism: Should everyone be an ethical egoist?



b. Problem Case - Conflict of Interests



c. Most Plausible Reply: Being Moral is in Everyone's genuine, long-range Self-Interest