I. Confucianism

A. Broad term covering centuries. Figures such as Master Kung (K’ung Fu-tzu) and Mencius. Our texts: Analects, Doctrine of the Mean, the Mencius

B. One of three main traditions: Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism.

Lies between Mohism (universal love, a kind of utilitarianism) and Yangism

Mohism - people should not simply focus on themselves and their private interests, concern for welfare of all. Universal love and the elimination of warfare to be practiced. Order of society and material well-being important (Kwong-loi, 142) This benefits self and others.

Yang- radical individualism, nothing is more valuable than ourselves as individuals, we must preserve ourselves and prevent harm. Goal is to nourish life, including health and long life, fulfillment of sensory desires if not harmful. One’s own interests and the public interest could be in harmony if each pursued his own good (Kwong-loi, 142 (similar to Adam Smith).

Confucianism criticized Mohism for neglecting family relationships and cultivating character. Yangism for lack of concern for the community. Saw itself as a middle way.

C. Confucius - c. 551-479 B.C.E. - Biography. Little known

Born in feudal state of Lu in today’s Shantung Province, father died when he was young, tried to be involved in ruling, became teacher. Feudal kingdoms constantly at war, rulers of the Chou dynasty weak compared to legendary ancestor kings of the Chou (Wen and Wu and the Duke of Chou) the sage-kings Yao and Shun, and King T’ang of the Shang.

Looked back to a golden age and offered the notion of emulation as key to a better future.

Western philosophers see Confucianism as a sort of cross between virtue ethics and deontology. Golden rule appears in Analects and Doctrine of the Mean.

Analects - Muller Translation http://www.human.toyogakuen-u.ac.jp/~acmuller/contao/analects.htm

Most accessed 4/11/02 and 8/18/02 ; unless otherwise noted. I have selected sayings and arranged them according to categories we will discuss in class.

2:4 Confucius said: "At fifteen my heart was set on learning; at thirty I stood firm; at forty I had no more doubts; at fifty I knew the mandate of heaven; at sixty my ear was obedient; at seventy I could follow my heart's desire without transgressing the norm."

Alternate translation: Analects II.4 (W. T. De Bary, W. Chan and B. Watson, eds. Sources of the Chinese Tradition (New York: Columbia Univ Press, 1960) 22:  "At fifteen, I set my heart on learning. At thirty, I was firmly established. At forty, I had no more doubts. At fifty, I knew the will of Heaven. At sixty, I was ready to listen to it. At seventy, I could follow my heart’s desire without transgressing what was right."

7:1 Confucius said: "I am a transmitter, rather than an original thinker. I trust and enjoy the teachings of the ancients. In my heart I compare myself to old P'eng."

19:24 Tzu Kung, having heard about Shu-sun Wu-shu's disparagement of Confucius, said, "It is ridiculous talking this way. Confucius cannot be slandered. The virtue of other men is like a small hill, which can be climbed over. Confucius is like the sun and the moon. There is no way they can be climbed over. Even if you want to cut yourself off from the sun and moon, how can you hurt them? It is easy to see that Wu-shu does not know value."

D. Seven features of cultural tradition from Neolithic to early imperial age in Han Dynasty (206-220 C.E.) according to David Keightley in "Reflections on How it Became Chinese" cited in Tu Weiming, "Chinese Philosophy: A Synoptic View" in A Companion to World Philosophies edited by E. Deutsch and R. Bontekoe (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1997) 5:

1. hierarchical social distinctions

2. massive mobilization of labor

3. an emphasis on the group rather than the individual

4. an emphasis on ritual in all dimensions of life

5. an emphasis on formal boundaries and models

6. an ethic of service, obligation, and emulation

7. little sense of tragedy and irony

E. Myth of Yu from Weiming, Ibid. 5

"Terrible flood covering all. Yu managed to control the flood waters. "First, he inspired people through exemplary teaching. He is said to have worked on the project for nine years without visiting his family once. Second, his spirit of self-sacrifice was augmented by a charismatic leadership that enabled him to moblilize thousands of people to work at gigantic irrigation systems. Third, unlike his father who failed to contain the flood by constructing dams, Yu studied the terrain, understood the nature of the disaster and developed a comprehensive and practical plan to overcome it. As a result, he drained off the flood waters of the North China Plain, divided the empire into nine regions and, according to the quality of the land, equitably distributed the natural resources among all the feudal lords. Thus legend has it that Yu started the first Chinese dynasty, Xia (2205?-1766? B.C.E.)."

F. Confucian world includes humans, nature, Heaven, and spiritual beings as an organic whole.

G. Key Terms

1. jen/ren - humanity, humaneness, benevolence, compassion, love for fellow beings, "co-humanity" (Boodberg in Tu Weiming, "Chinese Philosophy: A Synoptic View" in A Companion to World Philosophies edited by E. Deutsch and R. Bontekoe (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1997) , p. 9). This term also can be translated human excellence, humaneness, virtue. It is a characteristic of humanity at its best, a source of moral principles, and the outcome of a moral life. "The Chinese character jen is formed from symbols that mean "two human beings." Thus it represents the ideal relationship among humans." (John Roth, "The Analects of Confucius," in Masterpieces in World Philosophy. ed. F.N. Magill (New York: HarperCollins, 1990), pp. 1-2).  The following comment by Muller is also enlightening:

 [Comment by Muller] The Chinese term jen has been translated into English as "humanity," "benevolence," "goodness," "Perfect Goodness," etc. It is a difficult concept to translate because it doesn't really refer to any specific type of virtue or positive endowment, but refers to an inner capacity possessed by all human beings to do good, as human beings should. This is the reason some have translated it as "humanity." The problem with this translation is that it does not indicate the "goodness" implied by the term jen. In the Chinese "essence-function" perception, jen can be understood as the essence of all kinds of manifestations of virtuosity: wisdom, filial piety, reverence, courtesy, love, sincerity, etc., all of which are aspects, or functions of jen. Through one's efforts at practicing at the function of jen, one may enhance and develop one's jen, until one may be called a Superior Man, or even better, a "Person of jen." In the Analects, "person of jen" is an extremely high state, rarely acknowledged of any human being by Confucius.( http://www.human.toyogakuen-u.ac.jp/~acmuller/contao/analects.htm )

2. Chün-tzu - superior man, gentleman, noble, scholar - the superior man is the model that the students are to emulate

Comments from Muller: http://www.human.toyogakuen-u.ac.jp/~acmuller/contao/analects.htm:

[Comment]

Superior Man is a common English translation for the Chinese term chün-tzu which originally means "Son of a Prince"--thus, someone from the nobility. In the Analects, Confucius imbues the term with a special meaning. Though sometimes used strictly in its original sense, it also refers to a person who has made significant progress in the Way (Tao) of self-cultivation, by practicing Righteousness, by loving treatment of parents, respect for elders, honesty with friends, etc. Though the chün-tzu is clearly a highly advanced human being, he is still distinguished from the category of sage (sheng-jen), who is, in the Analects more of a "divine being," usually a model from great antiquity.

The character of the Superior Man, in contrast to the sage, is being taught as a tangible model for all in the here and now. And although many descriptions of the requirements for chün-tzu status seem quite out of our reach, there are many passages where Confucius labels a contemporary, or one of his disciples a "Superior Man," intending a complement. Thus, the categorization is not so rigid. One might want to compare the term "Superior Man" to the Buddhist bodhisattva, in that both are the models for the tradition, both indicate a very high stage of human development as technical terms, yet both may be used colloquially to refer to a "really good person."

3. Li - ritual, propriety, etiquette, rites, body of rules governing actions, tradition. Li is the social glue.

"The rules of behavior governing the interaction between people in recurring social contexts, such as the way to conduct sacrifices, marriage ceremonies and funerals, the way for hosts and guests to interact, as well as various obligations one has toward another person in virtue of the different positions the two occupy within the family or state. The term ‘li’, which refers to such rules, is often translated as ‘rites’ because it originally referred to rites of sacrifice and, even when used more broadly to refer to various rules of conduct, it still emphasizes the ceremonial. (Shun Kwong-loi, "The Idea of the Good in Chinese Philosophy," in A Companion to World Philosophies edited by E. Deutsch and R. Bontekoe (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1997) 139-47, p. 140)."

Hall and Ames use an interesting phrase to describe li:  "the underlying syntax of community."  (Hall, David L. and Roger T. Ames (1998). "Confucious and Confucianism," In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge. Retrieved November 03, 2005, from http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/G001SECT4

Comment from Muller http://www.human.toyogakuen-u.ac.jp/~acmuller/contao/analects.htm:

[Comment {by Muller}] Propriety is the English rendition of the Chinese li. This is a word that also has a wide spectrum of meaning in Classical Chinese thought, and is difficult to translate by a single word. Its most basic meaning is that of "ritual" or "ceremony," referring to all sorts of rituals that permeated early East Asian society. The most significant of course, would be wedding ceremonies and funerals. But there were also various agricultural rituals, coming-of-age rituals, coronations, etc. Confucius was an expert on the proper handling of all sorts of rituals.

The term li however, has, in the Analects, a much broader meaning than ritual, since it can also refer to the many smaller "ritualized" behavior patterns involved in day-to-day human interactions. This would include proper speech and body language according to status, age, sex--thus, "manners." In this sense, li means any action proper, or appropriate to the situation. For instance, in the modern context, I might go up and slap my friend on the back. But I certainly wouldn't to that to my professor, or to a student in my class whom I don't know very well.

In the Analects, li, as a general category, is clearly defined in a relationship with jen, where jen is the inner, substantial goodness of the human being, and li is the functioning of jen in the manifest world. That is to say, li is Righteousness, filial piety, fraternal respect, familial affection, etc.]

3:4 Lin Fang asked about the fundamentals of ritual. Confucius said, "What an excellent question! In ritual, it is better to be frugal than extravagant; in funerals deep sorrow is better than ease." (Muller trans.)

4. Yi or I - right, righteousness, duty, one’s own personal disposition to act according to li, doing what is appropriate with one’s virtue. Yi is putting li into practice your own way.

Ames and Hall, Thinking Through Confucius (91): Yi is one’s own unique disposition to act according to li. One makes one’s own meaning and personal identity. Meaning is fusion of external li and internal yi. Yi is acting appropriately in one’s own situation. (N. Gier - lecture notes)

Analects - Muller trans. 1:13 Tzu Yu said: "When your own trustworthiness is close to Righteousness, your words can be followed. When your show of respect is according to propriety, you will be far from shame and disgrace. If you have genuine affection within your family, you can become an ancestor."

[Comment {by Muller}] "Righteousness with a capital "R" is my rendering of the Chinese i, which has also commonly been translated as righteousness. Although not quite as essential a concept as jen, it is a strongly internalized human capacity. Being attuned to Righteousness allows people to do the proper thing in the proper situation, to give each person, place and thing its proper due."

5. Tao(dao) - the way, path,

6. T’ien (tian) - Heaven, impersonal diety, not a place like heaven in Christianity Tian was the supreme god of the early Zhou. The Zhou(Chou) claimed Tian chose them to replace the Shang. The phrases Heaven's Tao or Heaven's Way or Will and Heaven's Ming or Heaven's Command or Decree also appear in the Analects. Alone ming means Fate or Destiny

7. Reciprocity/shu = method of putting oneself in another's shoes, altruism, the Golden Rule.  See sayings in reading.

II. Confucian Self as Self in Relation - Web of Relationships - not an isolated individual pre-existing society.

A. Self as a process, changing and transforming. Not an unchanging essence.

B. Self as a center of relationships. Father, son, nephew, brother, son-in-law, friend, teacher, etc.

C. Self-cultivation.

1. Mental discipline based in Bodily discipline. Ritual, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and counting

2. If we cultivate the self this regulates the family, the state and the world. No binary opposition between public/private and individual/society. Community interest and self-interest are to be in harmony. Concern for the community is, selfishness bad, but not a goal of selflessness. (Ames, pp. 151-3). Base model is family. "Becoming a Confucian person involves benefiting and being benefited by membership in a world of reciprocal loyalties and obligations which surround and stimulate one, and which define one’s own worth (Ames, p. 153)."  Each person is a unique individual, but seen as such in terms of how he or she is recognized through his/her relationships and their quality. Not as an individual in the sense of a human equal and distinct as a member of the class humans (Ames, p. 153).  "The goal of overcoming selfishness, fundamental in classical Confucianism, is not designed to be altruistic. The premise here is that selfishness is the greatest obstacle to the realization of one’s social self. Since personal, familial, communal, political and even cosmic order are all coterminous and mutually entailing, commitment to community, far from being self-abnegating, is the road to personal fulfillment." HALL, DAVID L. and ROGER T. AMES (1998). Chinese philosophy. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge. Retrieved November 03, 2005, from http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/G001SECT4

3. We become human/civilized through ritualization. Practicing appropriate behavior and relationships.

4. We emulate those who are superior people. Models include the Chun-tzu/Superior Man and sages of old.

1:15 Tzu Kung asked: "What do you think of a poor man who doesn't grovel or a rich man who isn't proud?" Confucius said, "They are good, but not as good as a poor man who is satisfied and a rich man who loves propriety." Tzu Kung said, "The Book of Odes says:

Like cutting and filing,

Grinding and polishing

Is this what you are talking about?"

Confucius said, "Ah, now I can begin to discuss the Book of Odes with Tz'u. I give him a hint and he gets the whole point."

III. Jen/ren - humanity, humaneness, benevolence, compassion, love for fellow beings, co-humanity(Boodberg in Weiming, p. 9). This term also can be translated human excellence, humaneness, virtue. It is a characteristic of humanity at its best, a source of moral principles, and the outcome of a moral life. The Chinese character jen is formed from symbols that mean "two human beings." Thus it represents the ideal relationship among humans. (John Roth, "The Analects of Confucius," in Masterpieces in World Philosophy. ed. F.N. Magill (New York: HarperCollins, 1990), pp. 1-2).

One who is truly human will have concern and affection for others. He will do the right thing because it is the right thing to do, even if it means loss of position or wealth. If the ruler is jen, then this will affect the whole kingdom. For sayings covering jen see http://www.its.uidaho.edu/jcanders/Ethics/mulleranalectsselect.htm

IV. Li - rites, rituals, traditional values and norms

"The rules of behavior governing the interaction between people in recurring social contexts, such as the way to conduct sacrifices, marriage ceremonies and funerals, the way for hosts and guests to interact, as well as various obligations one has toward another person in virtue of the different positions the two occupy within the family or state. The term ‘li’, which refers to such rules, is often translated as ‘rites’ because it originally referred to rites of sacrifice and, even when used more broadly to refer to various rules of conduct, it still emphasizes the ceremonial. (Kwong-loi, p. 140)."

See also information under G. Key Terms above.

In the Analects - Ren, li and yi = something like Aristotle’s practical reason developing personal, contextual virtues.

In the Doctrine of the Mean, often a cosmic balance, such as a balance of yin and yang.

VI. Hsaio - Familial Piety hsiao(xiao) = familial love and respect; filial piety–especially of children towards parents; kindness, respect, and loyalty among family members

For sayings about hsaio see http://www.class.uidaho.edu/jcanders/Ethics/mulleranalectsselect.htm

Muller translation of the Doctrine of the Mean:

13. Confucius said: The Tao is not something separate from man. If you practice a Tao that is apart from man, this cannot be the Tao. The Book of Odes says:

Carving axe handles

One after another

They differ little from the original sample

Taking one to carve another.

When you compare them,

There are still differences.

Therefore the Superior Man treats people as human beings, and once they have corrected themselves, he lets them be. Being sincere and fair to all, though this is different from the Tao, it is not far from it. This means "not doing to others what you don't want done to yourself." There are four general ways that this can be characterized, one of which I[1] have been able to fully practice:

(1) Treating my father as I expect my son to treat me.

(2) Treating my ruler as I expect my ministers to treat me.

(3) Treating my older brothers as I expect my younger brothers to treat me.

(4) Treating my friends as I expect my friends to treat me.

In the putting into practice of virtue or the taking care of speech, if there is somewhere where I am deficient, I certainly endeavor further. If there is excess, I do not dare to merely expend it. His words reflecting his actions, his actions reflecting his words--how can this Superior Man not be sincere through and through?

Filial piety "is characterized by our ability to serve our parents while they are alive, bury them when they die and continuously offer sacrifice to them as if they are always present, all according to the appropriate ritual practice (Weiming, Ibid., 7)."

VII. Confucius Summary - Comparison/Evaluation - Most applicable to Confucian Tradition in General as well as to the Analects

A. Role Based - Tradition Based - Li (tradition, customs)

Mozi critiques because custom can be wrong. He uses example of a tribe who eats their first born sons. He says we must use test of benefit versus harm and consider universal love throughout society. Get rid of elaborate funeral, aggressive warfare, etc.

Roles constrain as well as enable.

Roles - perhaps for later Confucianism - graded or partial love as opposed to a Kantian respect for persons simply as rational agents or a measuring of utility regardless of relationships

B. Self-Cultivation and Emulation of Models of Sages and Teachings of Classics

"We learn to embrace these cultural roles and play them by studying models in life and literature" (Chad Hansen, "Classical Chinese Ethics," in A Companion to Ethics edited by Peter Singer [Oxford: Blackwell, 1991] 70). You become a certain kind of person - an ethics of character rather than an ethics of universal principles. Everyone a potential Superior Man or if very excellent a Sage.

C. Context Specific - Practical Reason - jen plus li plus i,

D. Importance of Jen/ren - Making ourselves fully human

"Ren is the intuitive ability to interpret the li correctly (Hansen, 71)."

Social education rather than law, character building

E. Care for Self and Others in Relation (similar to Gilligan) - reciprocity/golden rule

F. How do questions of justice fit into the equation?

A. Biography

B. View of Human Nature - 6 A

1. Kao-Tzu - Mencius Debate

Human nature innately good (Mencius) - Human nature neutral (Kao-Tzu)

a. Willow tree - bowls and cups 6A:1

b. Water - 6A:2

c. Kings shaping people (6A:6)

d. Niu Mountain

e. Fish and Bear Paw and Respect (6A:10)

2. Jen/ren more centered on compassion and caring than in Analects. 2A:6 - "All people have a heart which cannot stand to see the suffering of others." Infant in well example. If you did not care about the infant, you would not be human.

3. Mencius Sprout/Seed Theory - Grow into mature sage if not prevented (See Hansen, p. 74) See 2A:6 and 6A:6

Human sympathy becomes the virtue of humanity

("The sense of concern for others is the starting point of jen." 2A:6 Muller trans.)

Feeling of shame becomes righteousness (I)

("The feeling of shame and disgust is the starting point of righteousness."Muller trans.)

Feeling of respect for superiors becomes conformity to li

("The sense of humility and deference is the starting point of Propriety." Muller trans.)

Innate ability to know right from wrong becomes correct action guiding attitudes ("the sense of right and wrong is the starting point of wisdom." Muller trans.)

6a:6: "Everyone has the feeling of concern for the well-being of others; everyone has the sense of shame and disgust at their own evil; everyone has the sense to treat others courteously and respectfully; everyone has the sense of right and wrong. The feeling of concern for the well being of others is jen. The sense of shame and disgust is Righteousness; the sense to treat others with courtesy and respect is Propriety. The sense of right and wrong is Wisdom." Muller trans.

C. View of Kingship - 1 - 2 - The king as father. If king cares for people, people will respect and follow. Kingdom will flourish. First supply basic needs, then develop the people’s character.

D. Commiseration (Sympathy and empathy) - child in well as a key example

E. Five Relationships

1. Father-son - mutual care, age difference

2. Ruler-minister/ Ruler-subject - position difference

3. Husband-Wife - division of labor, gender difference

4. Old-Young - precedence, order and sequence, but

"In youth, not humble as befits a junior; in manhood, doing nothing worthy of being handed down. And merely to live on, getting older and older, is to be a useless pest." (Analects 14.46 in Weiming, "Confucianism" p. 190)

5. Friend-Friend - friends committed to mutual flourishing which may include teaching and critique - Chinese proverb from Weiming, p. 192: "‘friendship’ between shallow people is as sweet as honey, but friendship between profound persons is as plain as water."

F. Comparison and Evaluation

1. Counter-example of the Ring of Gyges type

2. Five relationships can deteriorate into elite, hierarchicalism that keeps common people and women of all classes down.

3. Motivation similar to Hume’s natural human sympathy with all its pluses and minuses

4. Other points.

Roger T. Ames, "The Chinese Conception of Selfhood," in A Companion to World Philosophies edited by E. Deutsch and R. Bontekoe (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1997) 148-154.

W. T. De Bary, W. Chan and B. Watson, eds. Sources of the Chinese Tradition (New York: Columbia Univ Press, 1960).

N. Gier, "Ethics Bluebook - Philosophy 103- Class Notes and Readings - Honors Section" August 1997 edition. University of Idaho, Dept of Philosophy.

HALL, DAVID L. and ROGER T. AMES (1998). Chinese philosophy. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge. Retrieved November 03, 2005, from http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/G001SECT4

Chad Hansen, "Classical Chinese Ethics," in A Companion to Ethics edited by Peter Singer (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991).

Shun Kwong-loi, "The Idea of the Good in Chinese Philosophy," in A Companion to World Philosophies edited by E. Deutsch and R. Bontekoe (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1997) 139-47.

John Roth, "The Analects of Confucius," in Masterpieces in World Philosophy. ed. F.N. Magill (New York: HarperCollins, 1990) 1-8.

Tu Weiming, "Chinese Philosophy: A Synoptic View" in A Companion to World Philosophies edited by E. Deutsch and R. Bontekoe (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1997)3-23.

Tu Weiming, "Confucianism" in Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced. ed. Arvind Sharma (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1993) 141-227.

Primary Text URLs

P. Halsall - Analects selections -

URL : http://acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~phalsall/texts/analects.html

http://www.class.uidaho.edu/jcanders/Ethics/mulleranalectsselect.htm translation of selections from Analects by Muller. http://www.human.toyogakuen-u.ac.jp/~acmuller/contao/analects.htm

Most accessed 4/11/02 and 8/18/02 ; unless otherwise noted. I have selected sayings and arranged them according to categories we will discuss in class. There is also one saying included from Muller's translation of the Doctrine of the Mean also available on his site. Muller's translations are part of his site which is entitled "Resources for the Study of East Asian Language and Thought "

Muller translation - Doctrine of the Mean

URL http://www.human.toyogakuen-u.ac.jp/~acmuller/contao/docofmean.htm

Muller translation -Mencius

URL http://www.human.toyogakuen-u.ac.jp/~acmuller/con