IMMANUEL KANT

IMMANUEL KANT - 1724-1804

Reading: "Kant" from R. Solomon and and C. Martin, Morality and the Good Life. 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2003. ISBN 0-07-297895-3 pages 259-276; 281-301, and 305-308.

I. INTRODUCTION

Examples: Exploding Island, Lying to Nazis, Falling Down the Stairs

Folk concepts found in Kant:

Motives Not Consequences

Do Not Use People as a Mere Means

Ultimate Dignity and Worth of Rational Beings

Treat Others as You want to be Treated

Don't Make an Exception of Yourself

II. BIOGRAPHY

III. DEONTOLOGY

IV. KANT AS DEONTOLOGIST

A. Reaction to Hume - reason not passion

B. Elements of a Good System of Ethics for Kant

1. correct for all people (universal)

2. absolute

3. based on reason alone

4. autonomous

5. accounted for freedom, ought implies can; responsibility

6. a priori principles vs. a posteriori

V. GOOD WILL: THE ONLY GOOD in ITSELF - Distinct from Good Fortune

A. Things that Cannot Be Called Good W/O Qualification

1. Talents

2. Gifts of fortune and happiness

B. Good will is good in itself, not by ability to achieve some end or consequence, not usefulness:

The good will is the disposition to do one's duty, to do what is right. Regardless of results.

VI. THE FUNCTION OF REASON

A. Not to lead to happiness

B. To produce a will good in itself

C. Developing a good will through reason provides only the satisfaction of achieving that end and may involve not achieving ends of inclination (roughly one's desires).

VII. MORAL WORTH

A. First Proposition: To have moral worth an action must be done from duty.

1. Kant's example: Two Philanthropists: Sympathy and Duty

2. Example: sick aunt and three nephews

B. Second Proposition: Moral worth due to maxim used not consequences. "An action done from duty has its moral worth, not in the purpose that is to be attained by it, but in the maxim according to which the action is determined." (Kant in Solomon and Martin, 275 and in Solomon and Greene, 264).

C. Third Proposition: "Duty is the necessity of an action done out of respect for the [moral] law." (Kant in Solomon and Martin, 275 and in Solomon and Greene, 265) Act so even if prevents/frustrates/"thwarts" one's inclinations (Kant in Solomon and Martin, 276 and in Solomon and Greene, 265)

VIII. DUTY AS OPPOSED TO SELFISH PURPOSE:

Acts done which conform with duty but which are motivated by selfish interest and/or inclination are not morally praiseworthy.

EX. Prudent Tradesman/dealer

IX. DUTY IN CONTRAST TO INCLINATION

A. Ex. suicide

B. Example: To secure one's own happiness

C. Scripture: Love neighbor and enemy.

Pathological love- love as affection cannot be commanded.

Practical love- beneficence, kind action for duty's sake may even when repelled by aversion

D. IN CONFORMITY WITH DUTY vs. FROM DUTY

Right thing for wrong reasons. Motives count.

X. THE CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE

A. Types of Imperatives - Commands

l. hypothetical - conditional, If ..., then .....

2. categorical - direct behavior with no ifs, ands or buts

B. WILLING A UNIVERSAL LAW FORM OF THE CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE: "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law." (Kant in Solomon and Martin, 290 and in Solomon and Greene, 279)

[Another formulation: "Act as if the maxim of your action were to become through your will a universal law of nature." (Kant in Solomon and Martin, 290, bolding mine). Is this really the same thing?]

1. All specific imperatives derived from C.I.:

C.I. an indirect moral rule from which all specific moral rules can be derived, such as do not lie or steal.

2. MAXIM - rule or principle of conduct

C. Two of Kant's Examples of Applying the Willing a Universal Law Form of the C.I.

1. #2 Keeping Promises (Lying Promise)

2. #4 Prosperous not helping those in distress

3. Similar examples

a. Baseball. Pitching- 3 strikes out/batting - 4 strikes out

b. Discrimination on the basis of religion, race, sex, etc.

D. Perfect, strict, inflexible Duties and Imperfect, meritorious Duties

1. Perfect duties - universalized maxims self-contradictory, sentence itself no longer makes sense, self-defeating

2. Imperfect duties - when universalized maxim makes sense, but to will it is logically contradictory, not reversible

Applying Kant's Willing a Universal Law Form of the Categorical Imperative

To apply the willing a universal law form of the categorical imperative, you must answer the following questions:

a. What is the maxim on which the action is based?

b. When universalized, is the maxim logically consistent? Can it still occur (is it still possible) when universalized, or is it self-defeating? [If everyone did this, would it still be possible?]

If the maxim cannot be universalized, one has a perfect duty not to follow it. For example, one has a perfect duty not to lie.

If the maxim can be universalized, then ask:

c. Does willing the maxim as a universal law lead the will to contradict itself? Can it be willed whatever position one is in? Can one reverse positions (change places) and still will it?

If a maxim can be universalized, but not willed without contradiction, then one has an imperfect, meritorious duty not to follow it. For example, a prosperous person has an imperfect duty to help those in distress.

E. NEVER AS A MEANS ONLY FORM OF THE CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE:

"Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of another, always at the same time as an end and never simply as a means." Kant in Solomon and Martin, 298 and in Solomon and Greene, 287)

1. Justification For -

a. Rational nature an end-in-itself,

distinction between persons and things

b. Human beings as ends-in-themselves, have intrinsic worth. Are not means to something else. Can't swap Jane for a new VCR. Nothing of equal worth. Humans are priceless.

2. Never use a human being as a means only to your own ends.

a. Example: Forcing someone to paint my house versus a contract between owner and painter where painter freely consents.

Note: Kant's system rules out even considering slavery as a moral system. Mill must argue that slavery is wrong because it would never actually (even though it could theoretically) produce more pleasure than pain.

F. Three of Kant's Examples Applying the Never as a Means Only Form

l. Suicide

2. No. 2 - Keeping Promises (Lying Promise)

3. No. 4. Prosperous Helping Those in Distress

G. KINGDOM OF ENDS

"the idea of the will of every rational being as a will that legislates universal law" (Kant in Solomon and Martin, 301 and in Solomon and Greene, 290).

"The concept of every rational being as one who must regard himself as legislating universal law by all his will's maxims, so that he may judge himself and his actions from this point of view, leads to another very fruitful concept, which depends on the aforementioned one, viz., that of a kingdom of ends." (Kant in Solomon and Martin, 302-303 and in Solomon and Greene, 291)

1. Each gives and is subject to the laws.

2. Autonomy and Heteronomy