Glossary of Some Literary Techniques in the Gospels

inclusio or framing - on a small scale a central section is marked off by repeated phrases. Example: Matthew 7 :16-20 (RSV):

You will know them by their fruits.

Are grapes gathered from thorns, or figs from thistles? So, every sound tree bears good fruit, but the bad tree bears evil fruit. 18 A sound tree cannot bear evil fruit, nor can a bad tree bear good fruit. Every tree that does not bear good fruit is cut down and thrown into the fire.

Thus you will know them by their fruits.

On a larger scale, the healing blind men stories in Mk. 8:22-26 and Mk. 10:46-52 frame a section of the gospel where the issue of literal blindness versus the spiritual blindness of the disciples appears.

chiasmus - an a b c d c’b’a’ pattern, the Greek letter chi looks like an X, thus the name with the lines or stories crossing at the middle, "d" in my letter example. Barr argues that Mark 1:1-15 is shaped in a chiastic pattern.

intercalation or sandwich technique - one story is intercalated or becomes the filling in the sandwich of another story. For example, the story of the woman with the hemorrhages is intercalated into the story of the healing of the synagogue leader’s daughter in Matthew 9: 18-26 and the trial before the high priest is intercalated into the story of Peter’s denial in Mark 14:53 - 72.

parataxis - construction that joins independent clauses together by the use of "and." Some say parataxis indicates rapid movement.  Some think it makes the narrative choppy. Parataxis is often used in Mark:

Mark 1: 9-13 (RSV):

In those days Jesus came from Nazareth of Galilee and was baptized by John in the Jordan.

And when he came up out of the water, immediately he saw the heavens opened and the Spirit descending upon him like a dove;

and a voice came from heaven, "Thou art my beloved Son; with thee I am well pleased."

The Spirit immediately drove him out into the wilderness.

And he was in the wilderness forty days, tempted by Satan;

and he was with the wild beasts;

and the angels ministered to him.

Summary Passages - Some passages summarize previous material and form a transition to the next section of a gospel. For example, Mt. 4:23-25 23 (RSV):

And he went about all Galilee, teaching in their synagogues and preaching the gospel of the kingdom and healing every disease and every infirmity among the people. So his fame spread throughout all Syria, and they brought him all the sick, those afflicted with various diseases and pains, demoniacs, epileptics, and paralytics, and he healed them. And great crowds followed him from Galilee and the Decapolis and Jerusalem and Judea and from beyond the Jordan.

And, Mt. 9: 35-38 (RSV):

Jesus went through all the towns and villages, teaching in their synagogues, preaching the good news of the kingdom and healing every disease and sickness. When he saw the crowds, he had compassion on them, because they were harassed and helpless, like sheep without a shepherd. Then he said to his disciples, "The harvest is plentiful but the workers are few.

Notice also, that these two summary passages form an inclusio around Jesus’ teaching in Mt. 5-7 and Jesus’ deeds in Mt. 8-9.

Foreshadowing - Looking ahead; telegraphing to the reader and/or character what will happen in the future of narrative or story time. Examples: the passion predictions in Mk. 8:31; 9: 31; and 10:33-34 and the prediction of Peter’s denial in Mk. 14: 30; and the prediction of a future appearance in Galilee in Mk. 14:28–which is not actually fulfilled within the narrative itself.

Retrospection - Looking back; referring back to an earlier point or episode in the narrative. Example: Mk 8:17-21 (RSV):

And being aware of it, Jesus said to them, "Why do you discuss the fact that you have no bread? Do you not yet perceive or understand? Are your hearts hardened?  Having eyes do you not see, and having ears do you not hear? And do you not remember? When I broke the five loaves for the five thousand, how many baskets full of broken pieces did you take up?" They said to him, "Twelve." "And the seven for the four thousand, how many baskets full of broken pieces did you take up?" And they said to him, "Seven." And he said to them, "Do you not yet understand?"